Abstract: Nagas mainly living
in the hill districts comprises of less than half of the tribal population in
Manipur. Substantial increase in educational attainment both in terms of literacy
and educated rates have induced in the contest and quest for higher education
irrespective of the gender and family background. Despondently, females are
lacking behind the males in it. However, interestingly, females are catching up
to the level of males as the gap of literacy rates has narrowed down. Nagas
appeared to be more educated among the hill tribes of Manipur. People in urban
areas are more into education. Both males and females receive a similar
opportunity in studies. More than ninety percent of the population lives in
rural areas resulting to a similar share of population studying in it. Students’
concentration in urban areas was relatively greater for the Naga than other
tribal groups or scheduled tribe in general. About fourteen and twenty percent
of the share of rural students and urban students respectively were in college
and other institutions and the rest were in school. Nagas were relatively ahead
of other tribes in accessing higher education.
Introduction
Nagas
predominantly dwell in the hill districts of Chandel, Senapati, Tamenlong and
Ukhrul in Manipur. Shimray (2001) has
classified 16 tribes of Manipur as Nagas. The tribes are Anal, Angami, Chiru,
Chothe, Kabui, Kacha Naga, Koirao, Koireng, Lamkang, Mao, Maram, Maring, Monsang,
Moyon, Sema and Tangkhul. These tribes have similarities in their
cultural and traditional practice that bound the bond of Nagas. The government
of India recognises Nagas as scheduled tribes in the Indian Constitution, while
anthropologists classify them as of Mongoloid stock speaking one of the
Tibetan-Burman languages. Nagas presents a unique traditional, cultural,
ethnic, linguistics and religious characteristics which are atypical. It
reveals a unique trait in terms of its demographic, social and economic
structure. Nagas, who were mostly depending on agriculture for their livelihood,
has gradually emerged towards non-agriculture activities particularly formal job as their educational attainment increases. The
government of India recognized on 29 scheduled tribes till the census of 2001;
however, at present there are 34
recognised scheduled tribes (STs) in Manipur. The 16 Naga tribes are clubbed as
a single ethnic group called Nagas, the rest are group as Other Tribal Groups
and Generic Tribes. The share of scheduled tribe population is expected
not to change much due to improvement in education. The difference in the
growth of population between various ethnic groups has altered in dominating
ethnic group in terms of population size. It is expected that educational
development is taking place both in terms of attaining higher literacy rates
and educated. The paper attempts to
examine the Naga’s educational performance and participation using the
limitedly available census data during the 1990s and 2000s.
A Brief Account of Nagas
The government
of India, as per the Population Census of India (1991), recognized the following Naga groups as scheduled tribes in
Manipur: Anal, Angami, Chiru, Chothe, Kabui (including Puimei), Kacha Naga
(Zemi and Liangmei), Koireng, Lamkang, Mao (including Poumei), Maram, Maring,
Monsang, Moyon, Sema and Tangkhul (Shimray, 2004). Shimray (2001) has
classified the 16 tribes of Manipur as Nagas such as Anal, Angami, Chiru,
Chothe, Kabui, Kacha Naga, Koirao, Koireng, Lamkang, Mao, Maram, Maring,
Monsang, Moyon, Sema and Tangkhul; Other Tribal Groups as Aimol, Gangte, Hmar,
Vaiphei, Kom, Any Mizo/Lushai, Paite, Purum, Ralte, Simte, Suhte, Thadou and
Zou; and Unclassified tribes [or the generic tribes]. The tribes of Manipur are
non-homogeneous group. They are one of the most distinctive features of
the states which are scattered over the state particularly across the hill
areas. They represent a unique feature of the state covering 34 communities
that originated from Tibetan-burmese tribal groups of Mongoloids. They are
categorized on the basis of their distinct language, culture, traditional
attire, food habits, belief and superstition. Presently there are 34 recognised
tribes in Manipur such as “Aimol, Anal, Angami Naga, Any Kuki Tribes, Chiru,
Chothe, Gangte, Hmar, Kabui, Kharam, Poumai, Rongmei, Liangmai, Zeme,
Koirao/Thangal, Koireng, Kom,
Lamgang, Mao, Maram, Maring, Monsang, Moyon, Paite, Purum, Ralte, Simte, Suhte,
Tarao, Mate (read as Maate), Tangkhul, Thadou, Vaiphei, Zou”
(http://en.wikipedia.org). The major tribal ethnic groups in Manipur are the
Nagas, Kukis, Chins and Zomis.
Shakespear
(1909:371) described that the term “Naga…is not recognised by the people to
whom we apply it…but it has come to have a definite meaning, and we understand
by it certain closely allied clans, with well-marked common characteristics,
belonging to Tibeto-Burman stock.” Hutton (1927:131) wrote that the “Naga
tribes have never in the past used the word “Naga” of themselves. It is a term
of opprobrium, used for them by the Assamese of the plains, and means probably
“naked” possibly merely “mountainy man”.” No Nagas of Assam claim any descent
from any ruler of Assam or elsewhere, and certainly they claim none from a
“Naga” family”. The word “Naga” has a definite geographical limit, and that,
the race so designated is subdivided into literally innumerable independent
tribes, who are constantly at war with each other (Peale, 1874). Nagas can
conveniently be group under one classification by their language. The “Naga’s
are members of that great race conveniently called Tibeto Burman, which extends
from the source of the Indus to Siam” (Godden, 1897:165). Damant (1875) as
cited in Godden (1897:165) states in a paper in the “Calcutta Review” that “The
Nagas are the oldest settlers, if not the aborigines, of North Cachar”. Naga
Hills which is partly the present Nagaland state is carved out from North
Cachar of Assam. Hodson (1901:309) stated that the “Nagas live in permanent
villages, and the power of the head of the village depends mainly on his
exercise of the sacerdotal functions”.
The
identity of the Naga and neighbouring Kuki tribes is an open question, though
we may note that Damant as cited in Godden (1897:165) found “as a rule, a marked distinction in
dress and manners between the Kuki and Naga, even in cases where their dialects
closely resemble each other”. The wonderful multiplicity of their
languages is a salient characteristic of the Naga race. All the Naga tribes
speak different languages which are so different “that a member of one tribe
speaking his own language is quite unintelligible
to a member of the next tribe.” Damant (1880:229) described that for “Naga
alone, there are not less, and probably more, than thirty different tribes, all
speaking different languages and mutually intelligible one to another. In some
instances, perhaps, a few may be reduced to the rank of dialects, but in the
majority of cases they are essentially distinct languages, and often no
connexion or similarity is to be found between them, as, for instance, Angami
and Lhota are so entirely different, that it difficult to believe they belong
to the same family”. The linguistic variation was maximum among the Eastern
Nagas. Further, Damant (1880:229-230) noted that the “greatest confusion
exists; there is such a multiplicity of tribes, each speaking a different
dialect, and they are so small in numbers, sometimes consisting of only one
village, that without visiting each village personally, it is almost impossible
to define the limits of each tribe with any approach to accuracy, or even to
say precisely how many tribes there are.”
It
is noticeable that in several cases dissimilarity of language and dialect was
not found to involve equal dissimilarity in customs and manners. Thus, the Mao,
Maram, and Miyangkhang Naga, though very similar in dress and customs, spoke
dialects which differed considerably; the Lhota language differed very
materially from that of its neighbours, but in dress and customs they resembled
each other closely; the Angami did not differ materially from other members of
the Naga family in manners and customs, but the linguistic divergence was so
great “that it is doubtful,” Damant (1880:243) wrote, “whether they should not
be classed as a distinct family of themselves.”
Nagas has unique features
in dress, food habit or even governance. There is a “marked distinction in
dress and manners between the Kuki and Naga” (Damant, 1880:231). Damant (1880:237) described that Kuki tribes are a “migratory
race, living by jhum cultivation, and preferring the densest forests”. Damant
(1880:246) described that the Luhupa a “very important and large tribe is found
to the north-east of Manipur…They are distinguished from the other tribes by
the helmet of cane which they wear in battle, with a brass cymbal in front,
whence their name is derived (Manipuri luhup, helmet), as well as by their
custom of wearing a ring of ivory or ebony over the foreskin, and by their
curios way of wearing hair, which is cut into the shape of a cockscomb, the
sides of the head being shaved. The Tangkhul, Phudang, and Khongoe are mere
sub-divisions of this tribe”. Tangkhul is said to be very great, almost every
village in the interior speaking a distinct dialect. Phudang which is presently
called Phadang/Phalli and Khongoe have only one village each.
Meanwhile,
smaller tribes such as Koireng, Chothe or Aimol are compelled to attach with
the geographically closer ethnic group for their survival and security. Oinam
(2003:2031) asserted that the “fate of those tribes who prefer to maintain
their distinct identities, not to be called either as Naga or Kuki, has to face
threats and at times severe atrocities in the hands of those who want to
encompass them into the larger folds of ethnic identity. For instance, while
Hmars and Koms have been able to retain their separate identities, other tribes
like Paite, Lamkang, Maring, etc, have called themselves as Nagas. Most of the
instances of such assertions are marked by the politics of survival rather than
ideological influences”.
Naga Population in Manipur
Nagas dominates, with about 46 percent in 2001, among the various tribal
ethnic communities in Manipur as presented in Table 1 and 2. There were about
3.44 lakh Nagas in 2001 which was increased from 3.36 lakh in 1991 in the
state. Nagas constitutes of 18.28 percent in 1991 which has declined to 15.89
percent in 2001. Nagas of Manipur comprises to a level of 0.033 percent in the
India’s population; that was lower than its contribution of 0.41 percent in
India’s ST in 2001. Nagas population in relation to general and ST population
of Manipur’s or India’s have declined in 2001 over 1991. Moreover, the
contribution of ST population of Manipur in the country population is
negligible at 0.07 percent. Tribal predominantly living in villages has
reflected to a large share of more than 95 percent living in rural areas in
Manipur in 2001. Nagas are also more concentrated and settled in the rural
areas with a significantly large share of close to 97 percent during the same
period. It is coincidence with the economic deprivation and unprivileged in the
form of poverty and the geographical and topographical setting which is
underdeveloped due to poor inclination of government in developing the rural
areas. Census data has revealed that tribal and Naga people settling in urban
areas are gradually declining as the share of rural population increases. It
could partially be explained by migration towards outside the state. It also
signals that rural to urban areas migration within the state is not largely
happening due to social unrest in the state. As much as 4.19 percent of the
Nagas were in urban areas in 1991 which has declined by about one percentage
point to 3.34 percent in the following period. Data shows a marginal decline in
the share of ST population in the state by about 0.2 percentage point as
presented. It was partially due to the exclusion of census figure in the three
sub-divisions namely Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul of Senapati district which are tribal, particularly Nagas, dominated
areas in the state in census 2001. These subdivisions is clearly a Naga
dominated sub-divisions because the contribution of Nagas population has showed
a substantial declined by 2.39 percentage point from 18.28 percent in 1991 to
15.89 percent in 2001. Assuming that Nagas population continue to constitute
18.2 percent in 2001 like in the previous decade then the population of Nagas
is “short by slightly over 52 thousand”, from the three subdivisions, in
Manipur. Nagas population has sharply declined due to the exclusion of about
half a lakh of Nagas in 2001 census. The 1991 data reveals that more than 53
percent of the tribal population were Naga; however the share went down to
about 46 percent due to the non coverage of some Naga areas during census
enumeration in 2001.
|
Table 1: Nagas population profile, Manipur
|
|
Particulars
|
1991
|
2001
|
|
Nagas
Manipur percentage to population Manipur
|
18.28
|
15.89
|
|
Other
Tribal Groups Manipur percentage to population Manipur
|
15.71
|
17.95
|
|
Generic
Tribes Manipur percentage to population Manipur
|
0.42
|
0.37
|
|
Nagas
Manipur percentage to ST Manipur
|
53.12
|
46.44
|
|
Nagas
Manipur percentage to ST India
|
0.50
|
0.41
|
|
Nagas
Manipur percentage to population India
|
0.040
|
0.033
|
|
ST
Manipur percentage to population Manipur
|
34.41
|
34.20
|
|
ST
Manipur percentage to ST India
|
0.93
|
0.88
|
|
ST
Manipur percentage to population India
|
0.07
|
0.07
|
|
Population
Manipur percentage to population India
|
0.22
|
0.21
|
|
ST
India percentage to population India
|
8.01
|
8.20
|
|
ST
in Manipur
|
Total
(Number)
|
632173
|
741141
|
|
Rural
percentage to total
|
91.58
|
95.25
|
|
Urban
percentage to total
|
8.42
|
4.75
|
|
Nagas
(Manipur)
|
Total
(Number)
|
335801
|
344196
|
|
Rural
percentage to total
|
95.81
|
96.66
|
|
Urban
percentage to total
|
4.19
|
3.34
|
|
Population
(Number)
|
India
|
846302688
|
1028610328
|
|
Manipur
|
1837149
|
2166788
|
|
|
|
|
|
Note: *ST population of India excludes J&K in
1991. **Unclassified in 1991.
The 1991 population for India includes projected figure for J&K as
projected by the Standing Committee of Expert on Population Projection
(Oct.1989). Manipur figure for 2001 excludes three sub-divisions namely Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul of Senapati district.
Source: Calculated by the author based on data from census of India, 1991 and
2001.
As large as 8.01 percent of India’s population was
ST in 1991 which has increased to 8.20 percent in 2001. Two factors have
contributed to the rise of the tribal population’s share in total population
from 5.36 percent in 1951 to the present figure: (i) the removal of intra-state
restrictions by the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders (Amendment)
Act, 1976, and (ii) inclusion of new tribes into the schedule. Removal of
inter-state restrictions on recognition of scheduled tribes may further
increase their share in the total population (Verma, 1990 as cited in Chaube,
1999).
|
Table 2:
Nagas as the percentage to scheduled tribes population, Manipur
|
|
Ethnic Name
|
1991
|
2001
|
|
Male
|
Female
|
Person
|
Male
|
Female
|
Person
|
|
Nagas
|
53.16
|
53.07
|
53.12
|
46.53
|
46.35
|
46.44
|
|
Other
Tribal Groups
|
45.53
|
45.78
|
45.65
|
52.38
|
52.58
|
52.48
|
|
Generic Tribes etc.**
|
1.31
|
1.14
|
1.23
|
1.10
|
1.07
|
1.08
|
|
All
Scheduled Tribes
|
100.00
|
100.00
|
100.00
|
100.00
|
100.00
|
100.00
|
Note: **Unclassified
in 1991. Manipur figure for 2001 excludes three sub-divisions namely Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul of Senapati district.
Source: Calculated by the author based on data from census of India, 1991 and
2001.
Nagas population was growing at very slow pace at
0.25 percent annually, which requires an attention by the government, against
the all ST population growth rate of 1.59 percent annually during 1991-2001 in
Manipur as shown in Table 3. Population of females was growing faster than that
of males. The slow growth of Naga population was mainly attributed by a sharp
declined in the number of Mao Nagas and Maram Nagas (Appendix I).
|
Table 3:
Sex ratio and annual growth rates of scheduled tribes population, Manipur
|
|
Ethnic Name
|
Sex Ratio
|
Annual Growth Rates in percent,1991-2001
|
|
1991
|
2001
|
Male
|
Female
|
Person
|
|
Nagas
|
957
|
976
|
0.15
|
0.35
|
0.25
|
|
Other
Tribal Groups
|
964
|
984
|
2.88
|
3.08
|
2.98
|
|
Generic Tribes etc.**
|
837
|
959
|
-0.32
|
1.04
|
0.32
|
|
All
Scheduled Tribes
|
959
|
980
|
1.48
|
1.70
|
1.59
|
Note: Annual growth rate is computed using a formula LN(Year 2001/Year
1991)/Time period X 100; here time=10. Sex ratio is computed as the number of
females per 1000 males. **Unclassified in 1991. Manipur figure for
2001 excludes three sub-divisions
namely Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul of Senapati district.
Source: Calculated by the author based on data from census of India, 1991 and
2001.
The growth of population was also largely attributed
by the growth of female population. It is validated by the improvement of sex
ratio, as presented in Table 3, during 1991-2001. The ratio has improved from
957 to 976 for the Nagas during the same period; however, it’s slightly
disturbing since its ratio was slightly lower than for all ST of the state at
959 in 1991 and 980 in 2001. The improvement in the ratio reflects the
reduction for the son preference amid rising educational attainment. Hesketh
and Zhu (2006:13272) mentioned that sons
are preferred because “they have a higher wage-earning capacity, especially in
agrarian economies; they continue the family line; and they are generally
recipients of inheritance. Girls are often considered an economic burden
because of the dowry system; after marriage they typically become members of
the husband’s family, ceasing to have responsibility for their parents in
illness and old age”. Further, Hesketh and Zhu (2006) noted that the population sex ratio depends on the sex
ratio at birth, differential mortality rates between the sexes at different
ages, and losses and gains through migration. Although sex ratio at birth
favors males, differential gender mortality favors females. Females have
greater resistance to disease throughout life and greater overall longevity, so
in circumstances where they have the same nutrition and health care as males,
females have lower mortalities across all age groups. The situation for men is
compounded by their greater tendency to engage in risk behaviors and violence, thus
increasing their risk of premature mortality. The decline in preference
of son due to the improvement in education particularly among mothers along
with an increase in urbanization and changes in the old systems of
social and economic control might explain the improvement of sex ratio among the Nagas, so as for the tribal, over the
years. The increased in male mortality due to the conflict and violence in the
state apart from underreport or under-enumerated during census has undoubtedly
resulted to the improvement in the sex ratio.
|
Table 4:
Percentage distribution of Nagas population, Manipur
|
|
Tribe/Ethnic Name
|
1991
|
2001
|
|
Male
|
Female
|
Person
|
Male
|
Female
|
Person
|
|
Anal
|
3.05
|
3.29
|
3.17
|
6.01
|
6.34
|
6.17
|
|
Angami
|
0.10
|
0.08
|
0.09
|
0.04
|
0.04
|
0.04
|
|
Chiru
|
1.81
|
1.78
|
1.80
|
1.65
|
1.62
|
1.63
|
|
Chothe
|
0.77
|
0.77
|
0.77
|
0.77
|
0.83
|
0.80
|
|
Kabui
|
18.43
|
18.80
|
18.61
|
23.78
|
24.10
|
23.94
|
|
Kacha Naga
|
10.11
|
9.92
|
10.02
|
12.30
|
12.11
|
12.21
|
|
Koirao
|
0.50
|
0.52
|
0.51
|
0.68
|
0.68
|
0.68
|
|
Koireng
|
0.24
|
0.28
|
0.26
|
0.39
|
0.43
|
0.41
|
|
Lamgang
|
1.20
|
1.20
|
1.20
|
1.69
|
1.74
|
1.71
|
|
Mao
|
23.03
|
22.80
|
22.92
|
1.37
|
1.38
|
1.38
|
|
Maram
|
2.96
|
2.75
|
2.86
|
0.35
|
0.36
|
0.36
|
|
Maring
|
4.72
|
4.63
|
4.67
|
6.83
|
6.67
|
6.75
|
|
Monsang
|
0.54
|
0.53
|
0.54
|
0.62
|
0.62
|
0.62
|
|
Moyon
|
0.58
|
0.66
|
0.62
|
0.83
|
0.90
|
0.86
|
|
Sema
|
0.04
|
0.02
|
0.03
|
0.01
|
0.00
|
0.00
|
|
Tangkhul
|
31.91
|
31.96
|
31.94
|
42.69
|
42.18
|
42.44
|
|
Nagas
|
100.00
|
100.00
|
100.00
|
100.00
|
100.00
|
100.00
|
|
171565
|
164236
|
335801
|
174167
|
170029
|
344196
|
Note: Manipur
figure for 2001 excludes three
sub-divisions namely Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul of Senapati district. Figure in bold are in
number.
Source: Calculated by the author based on data from census of India, 1991 and
2001.
The dominance by Nagas was largely determined by the
Tangkhuls with about 32 percent followed by Mao, Kabui and Kacha Naga (Zemi and
Liangmei) in 1991. Tangkhuls (about 42 percent) continue to dominate in terms
of population size followed by Kabui and Kacha Naga in the latter year. The
exclusion of the three sub-divisions which are dominated by Mao resulting to a
sharp fall in the share of Mao population from 22.92 percent in 1991 to mere
1.38 percent in 2001 as shown in Table 4. Kabui and Kacha Nagas forming the
Zaliangrong tribe contributes the second largest tribe. During 1991-2001, the
share of the dominant tribes such as Tangkhuls and Zaliangrong has sharply
increased due to the sharp declined of Mao population.
Education among the Nagas
The
British paved the way for entry into tribal society such as Nagas by the
Christian missionaries. They spread Christianity in concurrence with the
introduction of education from late 19th century. They brought
education and introduced the roman script, and made communication easier
between the Naga tribes as well as with the outside world (Chasie, 2005). Serto (2000) as cited in Thiyam (2007)
asserted that tribal people in the
hills generally lack education, training, communication facilities, etc. Among the Naga tribes of Manipur, the Tangkhuls were the
first to receive Christianity; therefore, they were more educated and better
adapted to the modern and Western cultures than other tribes (Lalitkumar, http://e-pao.net).
It appears that Christianity has played a major role for the tribal in general
and Nagas in particular in Manipur. As a result many Nagas are not only
literate but also educated. Literacy
rate measuring the educational development has substantially increased for Nagas
following the general pattern of the tribal over the years as presented in
Table 5. Ethnic consciousness is very much prevalent in Manipur. Every ethnic
group tries to assert their ethnic identity which many a times has resulted to
conflict and violence. It was believed in western democracies that the spread
of education would over a length of time erode ethnic consciousness (Burman, 1989).
|
Table 5: Literacy rates of the Nagas, Manipur
|
|
Tribe/Ethnic Name
|
1991
|
2001
|
Male-female gap
|
|
Male
|
Female
|
Person
|
Male
|
Female
|
Person
|
1991
|
2001
|
|
Anal
|
59.54
|
44.77
|
52.03
|
70.37
|
57.90
|
64.04
|
14.77
|
12.47
|
|
Angami
|
71.19
|
46.56
|
60.71
|
87.32
|
67.21
|
78.03
|
24.62
|
20.11
|
|
Chiru
|
58.42
|
42.05
|
50.50
|
63.69
|
50.87
|
57.42
|
16.36
|
12.82
|
|
Chothe
|
62.38
|
55.41
|
58.97
|
76.39
|
63.53
|
69.80
|
6.97
|
12.86
|
|
Kabui
|
54.02
|
37.48
|
45.85
|
61.52
|
47.35
|
54.47
|
16.53
|
14.17
|
|
Kacha Naga
|
47.56
|
32.56
|
40.30
|
58.19
|
43.52
|
51.00
|
15.00
|
14.67
|
|
Koirao
|
62.63
|
46.67
|
54.66
|
72.54
|
65.34
|
68.99
|
15.96
|
7.20
|
|
Koireng
|
67.63
|
46.41
|
56.47
|
80.39
|
65.26
|
72.48
|
21.23
|
15.12
|
|
Lamgang
|
49.78
|
34.98
|
42.52
|
64.82
|
52.96
|
58.87
|
14.80
|
11.86
|
|
Mao
|
46.54
|
27.03
|
37.05
|
71.05
|
57.60
|
64.40
|
19.51
|
13.45
|
|
Maram
|
36.08
|
25.83
|
31.26
|
63.04
|
49.43
|
56.16
|
10.26
|
13.60
|
|
Maring
|
39.38
|
19.53
|
29.77
|
55.25
|
36.79
|
46.23
|
19.84
|
18.46
|
|
Monsang
|
64.49
|
50.23
|
57.63
|
71.36
|
58.70
|
65.07
|
14.26
|
12.67
|
|
Moyon
|
61.69
|
52.07
|
56.66
|
72.41
|
66.08
|
69.16
|
9.63
|
6.33
|
|
Sema
|
52.86
|
43.90
|
49.55
|
77.78
|
100.00
|
84.62
|
8.95
|
-22.22
|
|
Tangkhul
|
57.73
|
44.17
|
51.09
|
67.55
|
56.30
|
62.02
|
13.56
|
11.25
|
|
Nagas
|
52.06
|
36.27
|
44.34
|
64.44
|
51.51
|
58.05
|
15.79
|
12.93
|
|
Other Tribal
Groups
|
52.10
|
38.03
|
45.19
|
61.35
|
49.37
|
55.41
|
14.06
|
11.98
|
|
Generic Tribes etc.
|
55.05
|
36.58
|
46.64
|
62.41
|
45.09
|
53.94
|
18.48
|
17.33
|
|
All Scheduled Tribes
|
52.12
|
37.08
|
44.76
|
62.80
|
50.31
|
56.62
|
15.03
|
12.48
|
Note: A
Literacy rate is the ratio between number of literates aged 7 years and above
and population in percent. Population includes 0-6 years of age. **Unclassified in 1991. Manipur figure
for 2001 excludes three sub-divisions
namely Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul of Senapati district.
Source: Calculated by the author based on data from census of India, 1991 and
2001.
Literacy rate has considerably increased for both
males and females. The level of increased was higher for the females than males
for the Nagas, following general tribal pattern, for example the rate has increased
by about 15 percentage points for females against an increased by about 12
percentage points for males. The increased in the rate is partly attributed by
the government intervention through free educational scheme, establishment of
schools in tribal remote areas and reservation policy;
and partly due to the increase in motivation by both self and parents
recognising the importance of education which is required for entering into
formal employment. The gradually eroding false belief and superstitions has
also induces tribal to enter in modern educational system. The increased in
agriculture density necessitate to seek employment in non-agriculture sector
which requires modern education raises the level of educational attainment.
Various government schemes and programmes for reduction of poverty among the
tribal population have also help in raising the level of literacy rates. In
1991, Nagas were fewer literates as compared to other tribal groups or all ST;
however, in 2001, Nagas became more literate as its rate was higher than other
tribal groups.
The detail literacy rates for each tribe that is presented
in Table 5 shows an increased of the rates for all the Naga tribes for both
males and females during 1991-2001. The highest increase was for the tribe of
Maram which was followed by the tribe of Sema, Mao, Angami and so on for males.
For females, the highest increase appeared for Sema followed by Mao, Maram,
Angami, Koirang, Koirao and so on. The rate was increased at the lowest for Maram
for males in 1991, and Maring for females in 1991 and both gender in 2001. It
has grown more for females than males for all the Naga tribes in Manipur;
except for Chothe and Maram where it has grown faster for males. In developing economies “each worsening of the employment situation
calls forth an increased demand for more formal education at all levels”
(Todaro, 1991:339). This also partially explains the increased of literacy rates. Further, it suggests an increased in the number of
educated. Interestingly, the wide gap of literacy rates between males and
females in the Nineties has narrowed down for all the Naga tribes; except for
Chothe and Maram due to the slow performance of females’ education. The
narrowing down of the gap was more prominent for the Nagas when compared to the
other tribal groups or all ST. Empirically, the gap for the Nagas has narrowed
down from about 16 percentage points in 1991 to 13 percentage points in the
latter year.
Educational
Achievement of the Nagas
Nagas are
increasingly becoming literate as its number increases from about 1.5 to 2 lakh
from 1991 to 2001. Concurrently, the number of educated has also increased. As
large as 77.89 percent, as shown in Table 6, of the Naga literates have
attained an educational level below secondary educational and the remaining
share were educated who have attained secondary and above educational level in
1991. In 2001, the share of literates below secondary has declined to about 67
percent because of the increased in the share of secondary and above
educational attainment. The level of educated Naga people has increased by more
than 10 percentage points over the years. A similar pattern and trend prevailed
for other tribal groups and all ST. However, the proportion of Nagas who have
completed secondary and above educational level was evidently more significant
when compared to the other tribal groups or the general ST populace. It
indicates that Nagas, who were exposed to modern educational system at the end
of 19th century by the Britishers, were relatively more educated
than others. Naga’s aspiration and quest to attain higher education surge more
than for all ST or even for other tribal groups.
|
Table 6: Percentage distribution of educational level
of Nagas population age 7 and above, Manipur
|
|
Tribe/Ethnic
Name
|
Number of Literate
|
Below
Secondary
|
Secondary
and above
|
|
1991
|
2001
|
1991
|
2001
|
1991
|
2001
|
|
Anal
|
5537
|
13603
|
76.40
|
65.15
|
23.60
|
34.85
|
|
Angami
|
187
|
103
|
48.66
|
28.16
|
51.34
|
71.84
|
|
Chiru
|
3046
|
3228
|
86.21
|
67.81
|
13.79
|
32.19
|
|
Chothe
|
1516
|
1928
|
76.39
|
63.49
|
23.61
|
36.51
|
|
Kabui
|
28648
|
44876
|
79.58
|
67.43
|
20.42
|
32.57
|
|
Kacha Naga
|
13556
|
21427
|
84.18
|
76.08
|
15.82
|
23.92
|
|
Koirao
|
938
|
1620
|
78.25
|
69.01
|
21.75
|
30.99
|
|
Koireng
|
493
|
1022
|
81.34
|
54.01
|
18.66
|
45.99
|
|
Lamgang
|
1714
|
3470
|
86.64
|
65.76
|
13.36
|
34.24
|
|
Mao
|
28518
|
3050
|
68.31
|
67.54
|
31.69
|
32.46
|
|
Maram
|
2998
|
688
|
71.38
|
64.39
|
28.62
|
35.61
|
|
Maring
|
4673
|
10744
|
83.03
|
69.99
|
16.97
|
30.01
|
|
Monsang
|
1039
|
1386
|
76.80
|
55.27
|
23.20
|
44.73
|
|
Moyon
|
1179
|
2054
|
71.76
|
57.21
|
28.24
|
42.79
|
|
Sema
|
55
|
11
|
74.55
|
27.27
|
25.45
|
72.73
|
|
Tangkhul
|
54796
|
90603
|
80.03
|
65.14
|
19.97
|
34.86
|
|
Nagas
|
148893
|
199813
|
77.89
|
66.96
|
22.11
|
33.04
|
|
Other Tribal
Groups
|
130420
|
215486
|
82.54
|
75.14
|
17.46
|
24.86
|
|
Generic
Tribes etc.**
|
3627
|
4331
|
77.97
|
67.07
|
22.03
|
32.93
|
|
All Scheduled
Tribes
|
282940
|
419630
|
80.04
|
71.16
|
19.96
|
28.84
|
Note: * Includes figures for educational level not
classifiable. **Unclassified in 1991. Below secondary includes literates
without educational level, below primary, primary and middle. Secondary and
above includes matriculation/secondary, higher secondary
(intermediate/pre-university/senior secondary), diploma or certificate not
equal to degree in non-technical and technical, and graduate and above. Manipur
figure for 2001 excludes three
sub-divisions namely Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul of Senapati district.
Source: Calculated by the author
based on data from census of India, 1991.
The share of below secondary education was largest for the Lamgang with
86.64 percent followed by Chiru, Kacha Naga, Maring, Koireng, Tangkhul, Kabui, Koirao,
Monsang, Anal, Chothe, Sema, Moyon, Maram, Mao and Angami (48.66 percent) in 1991 as given in Table 6 on
one hand. On the other hand, Angami with 51.34 percent has the largest share of literate with
secondary and above education followed by Mao, Maram, Moyon, Sema etc. to the
lowest with 13.36 percent among the Lamgang. Kacha Naga has the largest share
of literates below secondary education with 76.08 percent followed by Maring,
Koirao, Chiru, Mao, Kabui, Lamgang, Anal, Tangkhul, Maram, Chothe, Moyon,
Monsang, Koireng, Angami and Sema (27.27 percent) in 2001. Conversely, educated
with secondary and above was highest for Sema with 72.73 percent followed by
Angami, Koireng, Monsang and so on. Tangkhuls, the biggest tribes in terms of population among the Nagas, who have attained
below secondary has declined considerably by about 15 percentage points from
80.03 to 65.14 percent over the period against the declined by 11 percentage
points for the general Nagas. On the contrary, it indicates an increased in the
share of educated among secondary and above.
Naga Students
Empirical evidence shows that smaller share of the Nagas were students,
who were attending educational institution, with 35.75 percent in rural areas
when compared to the urban areas with 44.62 percent in the year 2001 as shown
in Table 7. The same situation prevailed for both the genders and for almost
all the Naga tribes. The share of students was also higher in urban areas than
rural areas for all ST and for other tribal groups. The difference is due to
the better educational infrastructure in urban areas, better educational
accessibility due to lower poverty and higher educational competition which is
demanded in most of the urban formal labour market. Rural people educate mostly
upto secondary level due to inaccessibility of educational infrastructure.
However, rural people who want to pursue higher education and can afford
migrate towards urban areas following the general prevailing trend in any
society. Rural people could not access to education as much as urban people do
due to engagement in economic activities to supplement their household income
primary arises because of poverty. They think that spending on education is a
waste of time and money as they are most likely to drop schooling on the mid
way which would be of less implication and use on their life. Opportunity cost
for the tribal is supposedly higher as compared to the developed society. Urban
people are relatively more educated and affluent which enable them to access
education. It is important to note that affluent rural people migrating to
urban areas to pursue higher education contributes to the growth of urban
population.
Females could not attend to educational institutions
as much as males could among Nagas, other tribal groups and ST in both the
areas as males are considered as the family bread winner. It is evident that
the share of female students was lower in both rural and urban areas. It could
partially be explained by the world experience that males are more ambitious or
economically more responsive. The prevailing lower literacy rate of females,
which is discussed above, also explains the lower share of female students. As
expected the gap of level between males and females was narrower in urban areas
for the Nagas, against a wider gap for other tribal groups. For the general ST
population the gap was of similar extent. In addition, the sex ratio of
students was lower than the sex ratio of population in both the areas for
Nagas, other tribal groups and STs. The ratio of students was much better in
urban areas than rural areas, corresponding to the sex ratio of population,
indicating a lesser biasness in motivating and supporting in educating children
of both the gender in urban areas. The ratio for students was 866 and 982 in
rural and urban areas respectively for the Nagas, which were considerably
higher when compared to other tribal groups and all ST. It suggests the
prevalence of gender indiscrimination among them. Female population outnumbered
in urban areas, with a sex ratio of more than thousand, attributes partially
due to larger female migration towards urban areas and high prevalence of male
mortality due to violence and conflict. There prevails more equitable in
accessing and delivering education to both the gender in urban than rural areas.
|
Table 7: Percentage of Naga students* to the total Naga population
and sex ratio, Manipur in 2001
|
|
Ethnic Name
|
Students* as
percentage to total ST population
|
Sex ratio of Nagas
|
|
Rural
|
Urban
|
Population
|
Students*
|
|
Male
|
Female
|
Person
|
Male
|
Female
|
Person
|
Rural
|
Urban
|
Rural
|
Urban
|
|
Nagas
|
37.79
|
33.65
|
35.75
|
46.27
|
43.05
|
44.62
|
972
|
1056
|
866
|
982
|
|
Other
Tribal Groups
|
31.79
|
27.59
|
29.71
|
40.39
|
35.70
|
38.01
|
981
|
1034
|
852
|
914
|
|
Generic Tribes etc.
|
35.85
|
32.43
|
34.16
|
34.95
|
35.56
|
35.22
|
974
|
773
|
881
|
787
|
|
All Scheduled Tribes
|
34.61
|
30.43
|
32.55
|
43.23
|
39.43
|
41.29
|
977
|
1040
|
859
|
949
|
Note: *Attending
educational institutions. Manipur figure for 2001 excludes three sub-divisions namely Mao-Maram,
Paomata and Purul of Senapati district.
Source: Calculated by the author based on data from census of India, 2001.
The economic backwardness and the question of
educational infrastructural inaccessibility has resulted most of the Naga
students studying in rural areas with a striking share of 93.65 percent; and
the rest about six percent studies in urban areas in 2001 as presented in Table
8. This is because majority of them are living in backward rural areas with
about 95 percent of the total ST population; and the rest only 5 percent lives
in urban areas. A similar pattern prevails for both the genders of other tribal
groups and the general STs. However, Naga students studying in urban areas were
marginally higher by about one percentage point, which is to an extent of the
relatively larger share of Nagas population by about one percentage point
living in urban areas, than other tribal groups and STs.
|
Table 8: Rural-urban distribution of Naga
students* in percent, Manipur in 2001.
|
|
Ethnic Name
|
Students*
|
Population
|
|
Rural
|
Urban
|
Rural
|
Urban
|
|
Male
|
Female
|
Person
|
Male
|
Female
|
Person
|
Male
|
Female
|
Person
|
Male
|
Female
|
Person
|
|
Nagas
|
94.00
|
93.25
|
93.65
|
6.00
|
6.75
|
6.35
|
95.05
|
94.65
|
94.85
|
4.95
|
5.35
|
5.15
|
|
Other
Tribal Groups
|
94.66
|
94.29
|
94.49
|
5.34
|
5.71
|
5.51
|
95.75
|
95.53
|
95.64
|
4.25
|
4.47
|
4.36
|
|
Generic Tribes etc.
|
92.64
|
93.37
|
92.98
|
7.36
|
6.63
|
7.02
|
92.46
|
93.92
|
93.18
|
7.54
|
6.08
|
6.82
|
|
All Scheduled Tribes
|
94.30
|
93.75
|
94.05
|
5.70
|
6.25
|
5.95
|
95.39
|
95.10
|
95.25
|
4.61
|
4.90
|
4.75
|
Note: *Attending
educational institutions. Manipur figure for 2001 excludes three sub-divisions namely Mao-Maram,
Paomata and Purul of Senapati district.
Source: Calculated by the author based on data from census of India, 2001.
|
Table 9: Percentage distribution of
Naga students* by educational institutions, Manipur in 2001.
|
|
Educational Institution
|
Rural
|
Urban
|
Total
|
|
Nagas
|
OTG
|
GT
|
All
ST
|
Nagas
|
OTG
|
GT
|
All
ST
|
Nagas
|
OTG
|
GT
|
All
ST
|
|
Students* (No.)
|
116705
|
110504
|
2556
|
229765
|
7911
|
6443
|
193
|
14547
|
124616
|
116947
|
2749
|
244312
|
|
School
|
86.38
|
88.83
|
86.66
|
87.56
|
79.31
|
82.28
|
75.13
|
80.57
|
85.93
|
88.47
|
85.85
|
87.14
|
|
College
|
12.24
|
10.01
|
11.11
|
11.15
|
18.27
|
16.13
|
21.24
|
17.36
|
12.62
|
10.35
|
11.82
|
11.52
|
|
Vocational
institute
|
0.46
|
0.39
|
1.10
|
0.43
|
1.61
|
0.93
|
0.52
|
1.29
|
0.53
|
0.42
|
1.05
|
0.48
|
|
Other
institute
|
0.81
|
0.58
|
1.10
|
0.70
|
0.80
|
0.64
|
2.59
|
0.75
|
0.81
|
0.58
|
1.20
|
0.71
|
|
Literacy
centre
|
0.11
|
0.19
|
0.04
|
0.15
|
0.03
|
0.03
|
0.52
|
0.03
|
0.11
|
0.18
|
0.07
|
0.14
|
Note: Manipur
figure for 2001 excludes three
sub-divisions namely Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul of Senapati district.* Attending
educational institutions. OTG – Other Tribal Groups; GT – Generic Tribes
etc.; All ST – All Scheduled Tribes.
Source: Calculated by the author based on data from census of India, 2001.
Table 9 shows that, in 2001, out of the total 1.2
lakh Naga students, who studies mostly in rural areas, as large as about 86
percent were attending in school institutions while 12.62 percent in college
institutions, only 0.53 percent in vocational institute, 0.81 percent in other
institute and a small share of 0.11 percent in the literacy centre. There were
more college students in urban when compared to rural areas for the Nagas,
which is valid for the other groups too. This is due to the availability and
concentration of more and better educational infrastructure that is also
expected due to the higher population density and relatively more developed in
urban areas as compared to rural areas. Moreover, increasingly students also
preferred to study in urban areas that provide better facilities ranging from
accessibility, amenities to services. Naga students in college were more
prominent than other tribal groups or ST in general indicating Nagas are ahead
in accessing higher education.
Conclusion
Scheduled
tribe population has experienced a stagnant growth in Manipur due to the
dismally low population growth among the Nagas due to the exclusion in census
enumeration in the three scheduled tribe subdivisions of Senapati district in
2001 census. Sex ratio has improved due to the changes in son preference and
increased in male mortality due to violence. Population of Nagas has dropped
over the recent years. Tangkhul, Kabui and Kacha Nagas (and Mao previously)
form the largest population among the Nagas. Moreover, literacy rates have
substantially surged indicating an educational development. Females are lacking
behind in it resulting to a wide gap of literacy rates. However, interestingly,
the gap has narrowed down over the years. Nagas appeared to be more educated as
the share of educated was larger when compared to other tribal groups. There
were more students in urban areas than rural areas in terms of proportion. Accessing
to education does not indicate any sort of discrimination between genders. More
than nine-tenth of the population lived in rural areas resulting to a similar
share of population studying in rural areas. Fairly greater share of Nagas than
other tribal groups studied in urban areas. About fourteen and twenty percent
of the students were in other than school, such as college and other
educational institutions, in rural and urban areas respectively. Students studying in college were more
striking among the Nagas than other tribal groups or ST in general indicating
Nagas is slightly ahead in accessing higher education.
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Appendix I
|
Number
of scheduled tribes population, Manipur
|
|
Tribe/Ethnic Name
|
1991
|
2001
|
|
Male
|
Female
|
Person
|
Male
|
Female
|
Person
|
|
Anal
|
5232
|
5410
|
10642
|
10459
|
10783
|
21242
|
|
Angami
|
177
|
131
|
308
|
71
|
61
|
132
|
|
Chiru
|
3112
|
2920
|
6032
|
2870
|
2752
|
5622
|
|
Chothe
|
1313
|
1258
|
2571
|
1347
|
1415
|
2762
|
|
Kabui
|
31613
|
30874
|
62487
|
41413
|
40973
|
82386
|
|
Kacha Naga
|
17351
|
16289
|
33640
|
21429
|
20584
|
42013
|
|
Koirao
|
859
|
857
|
1716
|
1191
|
1157
|
2348
|
|
Koireng
|
414
|
459
|
873
|
673
|
737
|
1410
|
|
Lamgang
|
2053
|
1978
|
4031
|
2939
|
2955
|
5894
|
|
Mao
|
39518
|
37454
|
76972
|
2394
|
2342
|
4736
|
|
Maram
|
5077
|
4515
|
9592
|
606
|
619
|
1225
|
|
Maring
|
8096
|
7602
|
15698
|
11892
|
11346
|
23238
|
|
Monsang
|
935
|
868
|
1803
|
1072
|
1058
|
2130
|
|
Moyon
|
992
|
1089
|
2081
|
1446
|
1524
|
2970
|
|
Sema
|
70
|
41
|
111
|
9
|
4
|
13
|
|
Tangkhul
|
54753
|
52491
|
107244
|
74356
|
71719
|
146075
|
|
Nagas
|
171565
|
164236
|
335801
|
174167
|
170029
|
344196
|
|
Aimol
|
1039
|
1069
|
2108
|
1248
|
1281
|
2529
|
|
Gangte
|
6621
|
6172
|
12793
|
4806
|
4636
|
9442
|
|
Hmar
|
18172
|
17595
|
35767
|
21699
|
21234
|
42933
|
|
Kom
|
6726
|
6278
|
13004
|
7354
|
7248
|
14602
|
|
Any Mizo (Lushai) tribes
etc.
|
4237
|
4003
|
8240
|
7618
|
7546
|
15164
|
|
Paite
|
20811
|
19981
|
40792
|
24679
|
24592
|
49271
|
|
Purum
|
212
|
176
|
388
|
286
|
285
|
571
|
|
Ralte
|
132
|
118
|
250
|
4
|
1
|
5
|
|
Simte
|
4455
|
4378
|
8833
|
5533
|
5532
|
11065
|
|
Suhte
|
375
|
371
|
746
|
911
|
994
|
1905
|
|
Thadou
|
61880
|
60114
|
121994
|
92261
|
90333
|
182594
|
|
Vaiphui
|
13839
|
13038
|
26877
|
19335
|
18932
|
38267
|
|
Zou
|
8422
|
8381
|
16803
|
10318
|
10249
|
20567
|
|
Other Tribal
Groups
|
146921
|
141674
|
288595
|
196052
|
192863
|
388915
|
|
Generic Tribes etc.**
|
4234
|
3543
|
7777
|
4100
|
3930
|
8030
|
|
All Scheduled
Tribes
|
322720
|
309453
|
632173
|
374319
|
366822
|
741141
|
Note: **Unclassified
in 1991. Manipur figure for 2001 excludes three sub-divisions namely Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul of Senapati district.
Source: Census of India, 1991 and 2001.
Reimeingam Marchang, Assistant Professor, CSSCD, ISEC, Bangalore – 560 072
*************************************************
For citation: Marchang Reimeingam, Population
and Educational Development of the Nagas: A Brief Account in Ethnicity, Resources and Institution for
Development of North Eastern States of India, P C Dutta and K Singha (eds) Akansha Publishing House,
Delhi, 2013 (ISBN: 978-81-8370-349-9) pp.188-212.
