Escalating Problems of Youth Unemployment in Sikkim

By Dr. Marchang Reimeingam

Published: Sikkim Express, Sikkim, 10^th July 2011 

Unemployment among the youth, who are in between 15 to 29 years of age, in Sikkim is rapidly escalating as compared to the national average. This is bound to happen simply because of the fact that employment avenues are not growing at the same pace as educational development. The further development and expansion of educational infrastructure will trigger more and more unemployment problems among the so called youth. As Deshpande (1989) has remark that youth are unemployed not so much “because they are young but because they are educated” The educated youth attempt to access employment market information to their fullest to get the appropriate job suitable with their acquired educational level. Thus, in the process of searching job the educated youth remain unemployed. They remain unemployed due to the unwillingness to take up work that is available, and unable to obtain the work they desire with their formal schooling. Gumber (2000) has also noted that “educated persons look for specific kinds of employment opportunities and remain unemployed till they get such work”. Further, the educated remain unemployed because of their limited flexibility and lack of adaptability to changes in working and living conditions, and income expectations. Callaway and Bettenhausen (1973) has rightly pointed out that the educated ‘preference to stay unemployed until the “right” job has been found seems to be a “perfectly sensible one” in the light of his attitudes to income and status’. In such situation, Sinfield (1967) described that “the longer one has been unemployed, the harder it is to get and keep jobs”. Even though the young work-seekers have acquired the requisite qualification for the given type of job the employer’s preference for experienced workers remains the problem. A majority of the unemployed youth consists of persons with no prior work experience – new entrants into the workforce. Meanwhile, the young people remain in the educational contest for longer period and develop higher aspirations. They, according to Roberts (1985), have become more ambitious and better qualified, while their employment opportunities have narrowed.

The usual status adjusted unemployment rate, based on National Sample Survey data, was considerably higher for youths as expected when compared to the general (i.e. all ages) unemployment rate throughout the periods. Unemployment problem was increasingly more severe for the youth with 1.9, 6.4 and 10.3 percent in 1993-94, 2004-05 and 2007-08 respectively when compared to the general with 0.7, 2.4 and 3.6 percent in the respective periods in rural Sikkim. While majority of the urban unemployed youth seems to be the new entrants into the labour force or those seeking work for the first time. These youths formed a large proportion of the new entrant unemployed. In urban areas, the problem was increasingly more acute for the youth with 7.2, 7.9 and 23.5 percent in the respective periods as compared to the general with 3.1, 3.7 and 10.2 percent in the respective periods. It is because of the rapid educational development and also rises in the level of educational enrolment through the expansion of educational institutions and also implementation of free and compulsory education for children. In the course of time, as Visaria (1998) has put that, “the nature of work opportunities sought by the youth has also been changing because of the considerable growth in the number of high school and college graduates”. The nature of educational system, irrefutably, is too literary, theoretical, lacking aptitude and techniques and largely not job oriented or employable in the present labour market structure which is mostly specialised resulting to the increase of educated unemployed. Employability, the question, depends not only to the type of labour supply irrespective of acquired type of education whether theoretical or practical, but on the nature of market structure and the development levels of the economy as well as education. Visaria (1998) remarks that the major challenge is to ensure the employability of the youth by training them adequately for productive work, by imparting to them marketable skills and the flexibility to learn new things and to innovate, and by inculcating in them a proper work ethic. Meanwhile, the rural economy is basically an agricultural thereby an increase in agricultural density due to rise in population raises disguised employment, underemployment and unemployment. Moreover, the persistence of traditional and conventional motives for educated to fetch a salaried job leaves in the nut-shelled of unemployed class. At present with the ever-increasing excess supply of labour, including the unskilled, the type of labour demands are more skilful with wide knowledge capable of handling various job by a single employee; also coupled with a relatively low salary package because of the excess job applicants among the educated in particular results to a considerably high level of unemployment.

If one compares the unemployment data of Sikkim with the national average it is surprising to observe that unemployment rate at national average stood at much lower level particularly in 2007-08 for both youth and general. It was 2.9, 4.0 and 4.4 percent in 1993-94, 2004-05 and 2007-08 respectively for youth and 1.2, 1.7 and 1.6 percent in the respective periods for general at national average in rural areas. Similarly, in urban areas, it was 10.8, 10.1 and 10.0 percent in the respective periods for youth and 4.5, 4.5 and 4.1 percent in the respective periods for general. Further, the problem is very sharp in urban than rural areas for youth and general in both the state and at national average. It is also true for both the genders in both the state and national average throughout the periods. Except for the male youth in Sikkim in 2004-05 where unemployment rate was higher by about one percent in rural areas (8.0) than urban areas (6.7).  In the latter period, the male youth unemployment rate was much higher in the urban areas likely due to rural to urban migration. The more severe unemployment problem in urban areas is because of migration among the educated in search of job or agriculturist due to land pressure from rural to urban areas where most of the non-agriculture jobs are concentrated. The trend is that unemployment level at national average is stagnant or rather declining, except for rural youth; however, in Sikkim it is rapidly increasing at an alarming rate particularly in the recent period. More severe situation may likely experience in the near future if immediate attention and response is not delivered by large generation of employment avenues, amidst the large variety of growing education, in Sikkim. It is envisage that there should be consistency in educational and employment generation planning.

Unemployment rate continues to be higher for females than males for both the youth and general throughout the periods at national as well as for Sikkim particularly in urban areas; however, it has become slightly lower for females as compared to males for urban youth in 2004-05 and the latter period. It may be important to note that the lower unemployment rate for female youths is because of the exodus of females in general and educated females in particular from the state towards the rest of the country for various pursuits and also the preference of female employees among the private sector employers particularly in the retail shops, hotels, restaurants, etc. The increasing “economic responsibility” i.e. income earning for the disposal for daily expenses, upbringing children, etc. which is presently catered largely by males also lowers the rate.

For citation: Marchang Reimeingam, Escalating problems of youth unemployment in Sikkim, Sikkim Express, Sikkim, 10^th July 2011. 

Consumption Expenditure on Education on Rise in Sikkim

Marchang Reimeingam

Published: Sikkim Express, Sikkim, 8th March 2010

Sikkim a small and beautiful state with a geographical area of 7098 km sq with diverse customs, cultures, traditions and languages is a home to multifarious social, ethnic and linguistic groups of population of little more than half a million (0.54) according to 2001 census. About 5 and 21 percent of the state’s population are scheduled castes and scheduled tribes respectively. The 2001 Census of India has recorded that the state has attained literacy rate of about 69 percent which is higher by about 4 percent compared to the national average. The prevalence of high level of literacy does not necessarily mean to have attained higher level of education. This can be explained with the National Sample Survey (NSS) data of 2005 (61^st) which shows that as large as about 53 percent of the rural Sikkim population were literate upto primary level of education that is considerably higher than 33 percent of the national average. Even in urban Sikkim about 41 percent of the total population was literate upto primary education, which is again higher by about 11 percentage point to the national average. It substantiates the argument that high prevalence of literacy attainment is just mostly a mere literate. Interestingly, about 11 percent of the rural Sikkim population have attained secondary and above level of education, that is higher by one percentage point to the national average. However, as large as about 27 percent of urban Sikkim population have attained secondary and above, which is lesser by about 3 percentage point to the national average. Achieving a high literacy rate doesn’t make much difference for male child preferences as the sex ratio showed a significant low at 885 when compared to the national average as well as to the rest of the North Eastern states in 2001. The state’s poverty level prevailed at about 15 percent that is lower by about 7 percent to the national average; and the per capita GSDP stood marginally higher at Rs.26,215 for the state in comparison to the national average in 2004-05.

 Within this realm, expenditure on education is increasing over the years due to the rise in income level as well as due to the increase in educational level apart from dearer cost in accessing its infrastructure. The increase of expenditure on education can be substantiated by a factual figure on household consumption expenditure on education of NSS. According to NSS, 2.32 percent of the total monthly consumption expenditure was spent on education per person/household in 1999 (55^th Round) which has significantly increased by slightly less than 2 percentage point to 3.97 percent in 2004 (60^th Round) in rural Sikkim; and, the increased in urban areas was more prominent by slightly less than 3 percentage point from 4.97 percent to 7.52 percent during the same period. (Readers should note that the figure for 2004 for Sikkim is generalized for hilly North Eastern States excluding Assam, Manipur and Tripura.) However, in rural India, it increased by slightly less than one percentage point from the level of 1.93 percent to 2.86 percent; and in urban areas, it has increased by slightly more than 2 percentage point from 4.33 to 6.52 percent during the same period. The increasing share of consumption expenditure on education may partly due to the unmatched increased of cost on education and non-educational cost and partly due to the growing importance of education or higher demand for education in the household. The higher demand for education may mostly be induced demand in a sense it exerts demonstrative effect. Disposable income are less expended on education in rural areas as compared to the urban spending patterns on it, as expected, possibly due to the wide differences in the cost of education as well as prevalence of lower level of education in rural as compared to urban areas. Consumer’s expenditure of the state is relatively higher than the national average both in rural and urban areas. This can partly explained by the growing importance of education as well as parents motivations and incentives to educate quality education might have led to higher spending. Most importantly, inflationary factor which induces to higher cost of education might have driven to higher spending. Moreover, it possibly be due to the larger students’ enrolment in private educational institution which normally incurred higher cost compared to government institutions, and the high cost for financing education, financing for higher education outside the state, inadequate availability of government or subsidies educational infrastructure and a higher proportion of household members going for school in the state. 

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For citation: Marchang Reimeingam, Consumption Expenditure on Education on Rise in Sikkim, Sikkim Express, Sikkim, 8th March 2010

A Quick Observation on Educational Expenditure in Nagaland

By Dr. Marchang Reimeingam

Published: Morung Express, Nagaland, 12th March 2010

Expenditure on education is regarded as investment in human capital. Irrespective of the society in Nagaland the general household expenditure on education is increasing over the years due to the rise in earning as well as income level apart from the rise in educational level and dearer cost in accessing educational infrastructure. During the 1999 (55^th Round) to 2004 (60^th Round), the National Sample Survey data shows that average monthly per person consumption expenditure on education has slightly decreased by less than one percentage point from a mere 4.76 percent of the total monthly consumption expenditure to 3.97 percent in rural Nagaland (Readers should note that the figure for 2004 for the state is generalized for North Eastern States excluding Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur and Tripura in rural areas and Assam, Manipur and Mizoram in urban areas). However, in rural India, it shows an opposite scenario that it has increased by slightly less than one percentage point from the level of 1.93 percent to 2.86 percent. The declined in consumption expenditure in rural Nagaland is a matter of concern. Moreover, the introduction of various central government schemes of incentives such as Mid Day Meal and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan possibly might have lowered the consumption expenditure on education. In urban areas, it has steadily increased by one percentage point from 6.52 to 7.52 percent in Nagaland; in case for India, the increase was more prominent where expenditure on education has rose by slightly more than 2 percentage point from 4.33 to 6.52 percent during the same period. The growing importance of education as well as parents motivations and incentives to educate quality education might have led to increase in spending and a higher proportion of household members going for school possibly led to the increase of it. The increasing share of consumption expenditure on education may partly due to the unmatched increased of cost on education and non-educational cost and partly due to the growing importance of education or higher demand for education in the household. The higher demand for education may mostly be induced demand in a sense it exerts demonstrative effect. The above mentioned schemes has also to be affected in urban areas expenditure pattern; however, due to the higher level of education as well as higher cost of education in urban areas in comparison to the rural areas the general increased of expenditure in the state and at the national average is observed. The level of expenditure on education is considerably higher in the state when compared to the level of the country in both rural and urban areas in all the periods. This can partly because of higher growth of educational attainment in the state as compared to the country. Financing for higher education outside the state can be another factor. Also, an inflationary factor which induces to higher cost of education might have driven to higher spending in the state. The expenditure is considerably higher in urban than rural areas for the state as well as the country. It is possibly due to the larger students’ enrolment in private educational institution which normally incurred higher cost compared to government institutions. Disposable income are less expended on education in rural areas as compared to the urban spending patterns on it, as expected, possibly due to the wide differences in the cost of education as well as prevalence of lower level of education in rural as compared to urban areas.

For citation: Marchang Reimeingam, A Quick Observation on Educational Expenditure in Nagaland, Morung Express, Nagaland, 12^th March 2010

Educated Unemployment Problem in Rural Nagaland

Marchang Reimeingam

Published: Morung Express, Nagaland, 8^th April 2010

Educated unemployment problem in rural Nagaland has become severe in the recent years. It is evident from the available National Sample Survey data that the educated unemployment rate (usual status adjusted) for 15 years and above of ages for rural Nagaland has considerably increased by more than two folds from merely 2.6 percent in 1993-94 to 6.2 percent in 2004-05 for persons indicating a growing educated unemployment problem in rural areas of the state. The rate has grown by more than two folds from 3.0 to 6.1 percent for rural males. The problem is even more severe for rural females as the rate has considerably increased by more than ten times from 0.6 to 6.4 percent during the same period. It implies that females do not just studied and live idle as many of them are entering to the formal labour market. Also, it indicates that the nature of education is seemingly too literary, theoretical, lacking aptitude and techniques and largely not job oriented or employable in the present labour market structure which is mostly specialised and limited resulting to the increase of educated unemployed. Further, in the recent decade or two, various job oriented vocational courses have been dramatically introduced across the country including the state. Employability, a crucial question, possibly depends not only on the type of labour supply irrespective of acquired type of education whether theoretical or practical, but also on the nature of market structure as well as the level of economic development of the country/state and the conventional practice which is so called “through connection” in/directly.

Educated unemployment problem hits harder in urban areas as compared to rural areas for both males and females. It is simply because the educated person makes a general impression that investment in education should yield a return in terms of salaried job; seeks or prefers organised, formal, salaried or white collar jobs, specific kind of employment; capability of affording of being unemployed; and aspirations are increasing resulting in a serious mismatch between the supply of educated job seekers and the demand for them in the labour market causing to raise unemployment. The educated unemployed are persons seeking or available for work and have obtained an educational level of secondary and above. Education is considered as the means through which knowledge and skills can be developed; helps a person to get a job and also to perform the same with a fair degree of competence; and regarded as the key factor, which determines the level of prosperity and welfare of the people. Again, according to Shingi (1988) education is “treated as a business proposition with all those investing in it wishing returns on it”. However, the overall unemployment problem has reduced from 9.8 to 9.1 percent in urban Nagaland. In case for males, it has declined from 10.0 to 7.6 percent; but for females it has considerably increased from 8.9 to 12.6 percent during the same period for urban Nagaland. Also for All India educated unemployment rate has declined for both males and females in both the areas as a result the rate for overall/persons has declined by one percentage point from 7.5 to 6.5 percent in rural areas and by little less than one percentage point from 7.8 to 7.1 percent in urban areas during the period from 1993-94 to 2004-05. It may be explained by the fact that sometime after spells of unemployment the educated unemployed after experiencing greater difficulty in finding work often “obliged to ‘trade down’ and accept second or third best” (Roberts, 1985) job; also it is assume that the educated unemployed are more informative which leads to out migrate in search for job resulting to the declined of educated unemployment rate. Generally, the problem of educated unemployment is higher for females than that of males as in case of All India in both the years as well as for the state of Nagaland in 2004-05 in both the areas. In 1993-94, in Nagaland, the rate was lower for females than males in both the areas possibly due to the lower base of educated among females or easier to get jobs at that point of time or after acquiring higher education females did not seek for job or alike reasons.

The prevalence of high unemployment level is because many job seekers’ expectations exceed the emerging realities of the labour market and they prefer to remain unemployed for some time rather than accept a job that they feel is beneath them. This creates the inverse relationship between educated unemployment and educational attainment. Due to above mentioned various reasons the educated experiences the so called “waiting period” situation. The waiting period (and also the growth of educated unemployed) depends on the inverse relationship between the supply of educated persons and the organised job availability. The widening of educated base results to a steep competition within the limited job openings among the unemployed in which the employers attempted to fit the more educated. This leads to an increase in demand for higher education simultaneously growing unemployment level. The employer’s preference for experienced workers and or overqualified person remains the problem for the new entrants into the workforce. Blaug, et al (1969) has observed that “there has been widespread and persistent upgrading of minimum hiring standards in India” which continues to be valid at present situation. The government of India is expanding all levels of educational institutions amidst the high prevalence of educated unemployment, which may accommodate some of them in higher studies that in turn is likely to act as a mechanism to control unemployment problem in short-run. Similarly, Marga (1974) mentioned that “educational expansion served to delay the entry of young job-seekers into the labour market by keeping them for increasingly longer periods in the educational cycle”. The rapid expansion of schooling facilities raises educated unemployment because “the absorption of the ‘educated’ in productive employment has proven difficult” (Visaria, 1988). It is envisage that employment should grow at the rate of growth of educational expansion in order to eliminate educated unemployment problem and to attain prosperous economic and social goals.

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For citation: Marchang Reimeingam, Educated Unemployment Problem in Rural Nagaland, Morung Express, Nagaland, 8^th April 2010.

What Went Wrong with the Educated Unemployed of Sikkim

By Dr. Marchang Reimeingam

Published: Sikkim Express, Sikkim, 30^th March 2010 

Attaining full employment in any economy is a dream. The general unemployment rate is lower when compared to the educated unemployment rate. It is simply because the educated person makes a general impression that investment in education should yield a return in terms of salaried job; seeks or prefers organised, formal, salaried or white collar jobs, specific kind of employment; capability of affording unemployment; and their aspiration are increasing resulting in a serious mismatch between the supply of educated job seekers and the demand for them in the labour market causing to raise unemployment. The educated unemployed are persons seeking or available for work and have obtained an educational level of secondary and above. Education is considered as the means through which knowledge and skills can be developed. It also helps a person to get a job and also to perform the same with a fair degree of competence. It has been regarded as the key factor, which determines the level of prosperity and welfare of the people. Again, Shingi (1988) “treated [education] as a business proposition with all those investing in it wishing returns on it”.

According to the National Sample Survey, the educated unemployment rate (usual status adjusted) for 15 years and above for All India has shown a decline for both males and females in both the areas as a result the overall (persons) rate has declined from 7.5 to 6.5 percent in rural areas and from 7.8 to 7.1 in urban areas from 1993-94 to 2004-05.  But what went wrong to the educated unemployed of Sikkim where the overall educated unemployment rate has considerably increased from 3.2 to 6.8 percent in rural areas in particular and from 4.9 to 6.4 percent in urban areas during the same period. In Sikkim, the educated unemployment problem has hit harder for males in both the areas; it has increased by more than three folds from 1.8 to 6.1 percent in rural areas and by almost two folds from 3.3 to 6.4 percent in urban areas. The nature of education is seemingly too literary, theoretical, lacking aptitude and techniques and largely not job oriented or employable in the present labour market structure which is mostly specialised resulting to the increase of educated unemployed. Of course, in the recent decade or two various job oriented vocational courses have been dramatically introduced across the country including the state of Sikkim. Employability, the question, possibly depends not only to the type of labour supply irrespective of acquired type (theoretical or practical) of education, but on the nature of market structure as well as the level of economic development of the country and the conventional practice which is so called “through connection” in/directly.

In case of females, it follows the pattern of All India that the rate has shown a declined in both the areas. For females, the rate has marginally declined from 8.7 to 8.3 percent in rural areas; however, it has considerably declined by two folds from as high as 12.5 to 6.2 percent in urban areas. It may be explained by the fact that sometime after spells of unemployment the educated unemployed after experiencing greater difficulty in finding work often “obliged to ‘trade down’ and accept second or third best” (Roberts, 1985) job; also it is assume that the educated unemployed are more informative which leads to out migrate in search for job resulting to the declined of educated unemployment rate. Unemployment level continues to be considerably higher for females when compared to males in both the areas for all India as well as for Sikkim in both the years; except that the rate has become marginally lower for females than males in urban Sikkim in 2004-05. Most importantly, unemployment rate differential between males and females has narrowed down in Sikkim over the years. It is not the case for all India.

Interestingly, educated unemployment problem was milder for rural and urban Sikkim in 1993-94 and urban Sikkim in 2004-05 when compared to the corresponding areas of All India. However, in rural areas in the latter period, educated unemployment rate was marginally higher for Sikkim (6.8) than All India (6.5). The prevalence of high unemployment level is because many job seekers’ expectations exceed the emerging realities of the labour market and they prefer to remain unemployed for some time rather than accept a job that they feel is beneath them. This creates the inverse relationship between educated unemployment and educational attainment. Due to above mentioned various reasons the educated experiences the so called “waiting period” situation. The waiting period (and also the growth of educated unemployed) depends on the inverse relationship between the supply of educated persons and the (organised) job availability. On the other hand, the employer tends to strengthen and upgrade “formal educational entry requirements for jobs previously filled by those less educated. Excess educational qualification becomes formalized and may resist downward adjustment” (Todaro, 1991). Blaug, et al (1969) has observed that “there has been widespread and persistent upgrading of minimum hiring standards in India”. At present the base of the educated people is visibly wide as a result there prevail a steep competition among them for the limited opportunities in which the employers attempted to accommodate the more educated for a given job. As a result an overqualified people are demanded leading to the growth of unemployment and increase demand for higher education. The employer’s preference for experienced workers remains the problem for the new entrants into the workforce. In the developing countries like India for “each worsening of the employment situation calls forth an increased demand for [and supply of] more formal education at all levels [primary, secondary or university]” (Todaro, 1991). The government of India is expanding, all over the country including Sikkim, all levels of educational institutions amidst the high prevalence of educated unemployment, which may accommodate some of them in higher studies that in turn is likely to act as a mechanism to control unemployment problem in short-run. Similarly, Marga (1974) mentioned that “educational expansion served to delay the entry of young job-seekers into the labour market by keeping them for increasingly longer periods in the educational cycle” in short-run. The rapid expansion of schooling facilities induces to the rise of educated youth unemployment because “the absorption of the ‘educated’ in productive employment has proven difficult” (Visaria, 1988). Hence, for long-run, the need and urge is to introduce and speed up various means to reduce if not remove educated unemployment problem for lasting economic and social prosperity.

For citation: Marchang Reimeingam, What Went Wrong with the Educated Unemployed of Sikkim, Sikkim Express, Sikkim, 30^th March 2010. 

Unemployment and Agriculture Sector: An Overview of Nagaland

Dr. Marchang Reimeingam

Published: Morung Express, Nagaland, 7^th December 2009

The problem of unemployment and improper utilization of already available manpower are very serious and challenging. The problem of increasing population which induces to raise unemployment be treated differently in developed and developing areas. The ever increasing number of population is unable to get a decent job with respect to their acquired education which creates a situation called unemployment. Unemployment problem is more severe among the educated than for general. It is also more severe in urban areas than in rural areas because the level is considerably lower in rural areas than urban areas. This is due to the fact that majority of the rural workers can easily engage in agriculture sector. Majority of the educated unemployed are seeking jobs in non-agriculture sector. In the process many of them migrate towards urban areas from rural areas as their place of origin is unable to trap them in the limited avenues of non-agriculture sector. However, due to the lack of accessibility many of them remain in their own place. Subsequently, many of fresh entrants in the labour market are pressed in agriculture sector. As a result the density in the agriculture sector has eventually increased over the years in Nagaland.

Agricultural workers (AW) as a ratio to geographical areas has increased by 7 persons to 35 (AW per sq. km) in 2001 over the last decade. Also AW as a ratio to food grain areas has increased by 0.49 persons to 2.75 (AW per hectares) during the same period; portraying a decline in the per capita availability of land for agricultural purposes. The increase in the density is a consequence of rapid growth of population, unavailability of new arable land, overt unemployment among the AW and unemployment in non-agricultural sector to mention few.

According to available NSS data the share of AW in the total workers (usually working persons in the principal status and subsidiary status taken together) has increased by 1.1 percentage point (PP) to 69.6 percent for rural male workers in 2004-05 over 1993-94. The same PP of 1.1 percent has increased for rural females to 90.4 percent during the same period. The situation is worse for urban females as the share has increased sharply by 13.1 PP to 28.5 percent; however, for urban males it has moderately increased by 0.8 PP to 5.3 percent during the same period. The increasing share of AW indicates an inability to provide employment in the non-agricultural sector for the growing labour supply which is a serious issue to be considered by the policy makers. The traditional subsistence agricultural crops must be replaced or substituted with high return cash crops keeping in mind the sustainability of the environment.

The problem of unemployment in Nagaland is worsening over the years particularly among the females. It is hitting hard in urban areas as well specifically for females. According to NSS, usual principal status of unemployment rate has increased by 3.8 PP to 5.9 percent for rural males in 2004-05 over 1993-94. In case of rural females, it has increased from a negligible rate to 3.3 percent. For urban males the rate has showed a declined by (–) 1.9 PP to mere 5.0 percent. The problem for urban females is worse as the rate has significantly increased by 6.5 PP touching to 13.5 percent. The problem of unemployment among the youth (15-29 years) is even worse as the prevalence of unemployment rates is much higher than the general rate of unemployment. Both unemployment rates and the share of agricultural workers have increased indicating a positively correlation particularly in rural areas. With an increase in unemployment rate underemployment in agriculture sector must have increased lowering the per capita production.

Unemployment rate is higher in urban areas due to factors like higher educational attainment, higher wage, higher concentration of non-agricultural employment, better infrastructure, rural to urban migration, etc. Migration take place due to various push factors such as economic insecurity etc. and pull factors like job prospect etc. In real world, migrant’s expected marginal productivity of labour is higher than the non-migrants. Because of this reason the rural-urban migration is a primary phenomenon particularly for the landless, marginalized, poor and most importantly the educated. The large share of workers engagement in agriculture, although raise its density, has somehow solve the problem of unemployment in rural areas; however, aggravated in urban areas. In long run, it will intensify the unemployment problem in rural areas. Unemployment rate could be lowered by the development of infrastructures, proper functioning of government policies, efficient and effective programmes and policies implementation and adequate people’s participation. The increasing unemployment rates calls forth to realization for self employment. With the introduction of various Government employment generation schemes like National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, Indira Awas Yojana, etc. unemployment problem is somehow reduced.   

It can be summarized that the growing unemployment problem is a result of growing population which supply new entrants in the labour market on one hand; and unable to provide adequate non-agricultural employment by the state policy makers on other hand. As a consequence they are press on to agriculture sector raising agricultural density and agricultural employment. The situation demands more employment schemes in order to eradicate unemployment problems and for State’s prosperity.

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For citation: Marchang Reimeingam, Unemployment and Agriculture Sector: An Overview of Nagaland, Morung Express, Nagaland, 7^th December 2009.

Declining Fulltime Employment and Its Future Implication in Manipur

By Marchang Reimeingam

Published: The Sangai Express, 5-6^th April 2009

The objective of all the economies including the state of Manipur is to achieve full employment. But unfortunately, fulltime employment (main workers) has declined significantly in the recent years at the cost of a significant increase of part-time employment (marginal workers). Although the prevalence is not uniform across the rural and urban areas that leads to a variation in the rate of economic participation and employment growth. The study begins by examining the overall economic participation rates generally called as workforce participation rate (WPR). The study is based on census data; and is important to note that data of 2001 excludes three sub-divisions of Senapati district. During 1991-2001 the WPR – ratio of workers and population; workers includes both main and marginal – of the state has increased from 47.12 to 49.25 percent for rural males, declined from 43.22 to 41.53 percent for rural females, increased from 40.33 to 44.94 percent for urban males, and from 27.88 to 32.25 percent for urban females. Its increase is partly due to the definitional change that had taken placed and partly due to an increase of marginal workers among other reasons.

During the same period, the proportion of fulltime/main workers to the total workers has considerably declined from 97.73 to 80.43 percent for rural males and from 97.43 to 85.22 percent for urban males. The declined is sharper in case of females both in rural and urban areas. For females, it has declined from 86.08 to 53.68 percent in rural areas and from 74.69 to 58.77 percent in urban areas. The rate of decline is sharper in rural than urban areas. On the other hand, the proportion of marginal workers has increased significantly for both males and females and in both the areas. It has increased from merely 2.27 to 19.57 percent for rural males, 13.92 to 46.32 percent for rural females, 2.57 to 14.78 percent for urban males, and from 25.31 to 41.23 percent for urban females. The decline of main workers or the increase of marginal workers could largely explain by the unavailability of employment opportunities for full time and due to the deterioration of working avenues; apart from the definitional change which is partly a reason. This situation pertains to a low household income which is insufficient to sustain. So it further demands an extra hand to meet the needs of goods and services therefore marginal workers has significantly increased.

Interestingly, the annual growth rate of employment is greater than the growth rate of population during 1991-2001. For rural male employment is growing faster at 2.14 percent annually than population at 1.70 percent. Similarly, for urban males, employment is growing at higher rate at 2.22 percent than the growth rate of population at 1.13 percent. In case of rural females, employment is growing at lower rate at 1.46 percent than population growth at 1.86 percent. However, for urban females, employment is growing faster at 2.93 percent than population at 1.47 percent. The higher growth rate of employment is contributed largely by a very significant growth of marginal workers; which further implies that there is a wide existence of underemployment. It would not be incorrect to mention the existence of disguised employment even among the main workers. While the higher growth rates of workers than population sounds impressive but the disintegrated data of main and marginal workers threatens the future labour demand because this higher growth is at large contributed, as mentioned earlier, by the marginal workers. Also the increase in full time enrolment of higher education but due to the insufficiency and inadequacy of economic subsistence oblige to work as part time/marginal workers thereby raising the growth rates of marginal workers.  Moreover, the unavailability of full time work induces in an engagement as marginal workers. Marginal workers are growing at high rates as compared to the growth of main workers. The annual growth rates of marginal workers are 23.68, 13.49, 19.70 and 7.81 percent for rural males, rural females, urban males and urban females respectively during the same period. This suggests a low production and income resulting to the inability to initiate further investment for future returns.

During 1991-2001, the growth rate of main workers is substantially low implying the non generation/availability of full time employment. The annual growth rates are 0.19 and 0.88 percent for rural and urban males respectively. For females, it is growing negatively at –3.26 percent in rural areas; however, in urban areas it is growing at 0.53 percent. Marginal workers are growing much faster in rural areas; while main workers are growing faster in urban areas. This is likely to continue in the near future as the economy of Manipur is buoyant. The continuation of this trend will further deteriorate employment situation in the state not only in terms of economic participation but also in terms of underemployment. Employment patterns and its structure is one of the indicators of existing economic condition. The improvement of economic condition, therefore, is a necessary condition to raise employment opportunities and vice versa. Further, the prevailing trend of casualisation, contractualisation and informalisation of labour although creates job; however, underemployment is seemingly increasing as the supply of labour adjust with the system of shrinking organized sector job. This induces to move towards the so called marginal work.

Further, the comparison between the growth rates of main workers and population shows a significantly lower growth rates for main workers than population implying an increase in the dependency ratios or burden in terms of social and economic responsibility.

Planners and policy makers need to generate more employment avenues so as to absorb the increasing supply of labour because the delay in its deliverance increases the loss in productions and the consequences of unemployment particularly among the youth will result destructions in a society. The increasing educational policy of accommodation in a higher level of education to curb unemployment in short run is bewildered when unable to deliver their job aspirations in accordance with the investment made in acquiring knowledge and skill in long run. Therefore, it would be wise to counsel to study in job oriented courses that are specifically related to local needs, environment and conditions.

In conclusion, WPR has increased in general. Employment is growing faster than population due to a significant increased among the marginal workers. Fulltime employment has considerably declined; however part-time employment has increased. The likelihood to continue this trend in near future is very high, which is a feel-bad-factor, due to an inadequate and inefficient development policies and implementation as Manipur’s economy remains buoyant.
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For citation: Marchang Reimeingam, Declining Full-time Employment and its Future Implication in Manipur, The Sangai Express, Imphal, 5-6^th April 2009.

Unemployment and Migration among the People from Manipur

Reimeingam Marchang

Published: 10^th Feb.2009, Imphal Free Press

Migration has rapidly increased ever since the economic liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation (LPG) particularly among the young and educated people for economic reason among other reasons. Generally, people migrate for employment, education, marriage, security, fear-psychosis, etc. Over the years migration is increasing from all the streams such as rural to rural, rural to urban, urban to rural and also urban to urban areas in order to maximise their economic and social well-being. Employment opportunities are booming in specific regions due to the pouring in of capital markets as the economy becomes stronger and stabilises. In the process the tendency to migrate or transfer labour from the less developed regions such as Manipur increases. LPG benefits for all persons irrespective of the type of labour supply such as skilled, semi-skilled or unskilled.

According to the census of India in 1981 as many as little less than 11 thousand people migrated from Manipur to the ‘rest of the country (excluding seven North Eastern States)’ for various reasons; which has increased to more than two folds at close to 24 thousand in 2001. Here migrants refer to all-duration of residence by place of last residence. Of these 24 thousand people about 51 percent were males and the remaining share of them was females. About 30 percent of the males migrated for employment, a similar size of them was for education, and the rest 40 percent migrated for other reasons.  In case of female migrants from Manipur to the rest of the country about only 4 percent were for employment, 15 percent were for education, and the rest 81 percent migrated for other reasons.

The rural people tend to migrate towards urban areas as the quality of education and its infrastructure, and the job opportunities is much greater in urban areas. And the opening up of new employment opportunities in selected cities particularly in big cities act as the pull factor for migration on other hand. The concentration of the availability of job in such areas helps to benefit mostly to the educated and to those who can afford to reach the destination. In such case, the ability to access such opportunities become void for the countryside and rural labour among the poor. However, in recent years, it is clearly evident that migration is rapidly growing from the remote NE to (for example) Delhi. It seems somehow easy to get a job as most of the NE people learn their education in english medium. Nevertheless, general NE people’s nature of hospitality or the english accent helps in getting job easily in hotel/shop or in customer care service. It is not surprising that many people from NE including from Manipur are venturing into various types of businesses and self-employed besides creating numerous employment in recent time in the migration destination.

In such situation majority of the people still aspire for the so called government job. A traditional mindset of recognising government job as a real and only job which gives economic security apart from gaining social status persist. The dependence and rely on government to provide a job should be kept only as an alternative in present real world because in the post LPG the private sector grows rapidly while generation of government employment dwindles at fast rate. As a result contractual and casual work increases without excepting the government sector. In fact, it is not that the government does not create job but the rate of its employment created or available is far less than the tremendously increasing supply of labour. Usually the private sector employees are more efficient and productive than the government counterparts. The government sector employees are a ‘slack’ particularly in Manipur. Because of this the state is developing at snail pace thereby employment generation is also slow which rendered people to be unemployed and induces to migrate from the state to search suitable employment corresponding to their educational qualifications. It is ironic that majority of the organised sector jobs are provided by the government. It is due to the existing political problem where organised private market players investment is hardly visible. The long term security of the investors and stability of their establishment is the risk factor for moving in by the big and well organised private sector.

On the aspect of education of the state, the rate of literacy has increased from about 72 percent in 1991 to about 78 percent in the latter decade for males. For females it has increased from 48 to 60 percent in the same period. According to the report of NSS 2004-05, little more than 18 percent of the rural people had completed secondary and above educational level. In urban areas, about 36 percent of the people had completed secondary and above. This shows that majority of the people particularly in rural areas are not educated. This led to a problem of unemployment where ‘employability’ is a question. The general unemployment rate (usual principal status) was about 2 percent in rural areas and about 6 percent in urban areas. However, for the youth (15-29 years of age) it stood significantly higher at about 4 percent in rural areas and slightly more than 19 percent in urban areas. Normally, the unemployment rate is higher in urban than rural areas due to higher educational level. Moreover, the rates use to be higher for the youths than the general unemployment rates. It is because that the youth age are at the entry point in the job markets whereas older people than the youths are mostly settled down and raise a family with economic responsibility so most of the older people are workers. Further, the above explanation indicates that with the rising level of education the problem of unemployment increases due to a higher and better job aspiration particularly in urban areas and among the youth. This acted as the push factor for migration.

Concisely, migration from Manipur is rapidly increasing in search of better education and for job in particular in the post LPG where jobs are growing in some selected regions. Migration from the state is due to a high unemployment rate particularly for the youths and in urban areas which is a result of slow employment generation by the government and low participation in job creation by the private sector amidst growing educational level. 
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For citation: Marchang Reimeingam, Unemployment and Migration among the People from Manipur, Imphal Free Press, Imphal, 10^th Feb.2009. 

Spiraling Consumption Expenditure on Education: An Employment Perspective in Manipur

By Marchang Reimeingam

Published: 22^nd Jan. 2009, Imphal Free Press

Education is a function of employment in the modern job market. People invest on development of human resources in order to yield some product for future economic well-being and for better welfare of society among many other purposes. Education is a means for development of morality and personality, accumulation of knowledge and skills, and for employability in the modern labour market in particular among many ends. It was imparted in one or other form for the development and betterment of human race irrespective of the civilization throughout the human generations. Inevitably, much before the birth of western education, in Manipur society education have been imparted although not through a written form. With the introduction of western education the importance of it has increased tremendously especially for job. Educating and motivating for prosperity through learning is widespread yet education remains a dream for large section of the people of Manipur. At present education is considered as the most necessary commodity; therefore educational attainment is ever rising irrespective of the type of household job and income level. This is largely contributed by the nature of competitive structure of demand for labour with extra qualifications in the existing job market.

Expenditure on education is increasing over the years due to the rise in income level as well as due to the increase in literacy rates/educational level apart from dearer cost in accessing its infrastructure. The increase of expenditure on education can be substantiated by a factual figure on household consumption expenditure on education. According to National Sample Survey, 3.76 percent of the total monthly consumption expenditure was spent on education per person/household in 1999 (55^th Round) which has significantly increased to 6.39 percent in 2004 (60^th Round) for rural areas; similarly, it has considerably increased from 6.49 percent in 1999 to 8.93 percent in the latter year in urban areas for Manipur. For All-India, it was at the level of 1.93 percent in 1999 which has marginally increased to 2.86 percent in 2004 in rural areas; however, in urban areas, it has increased by about 2 percentage point from 4.33 percent in 1999 to 6.52 percent in the latter year. It is evident that the monthly expenditure on education is higher in urban than rural areas as expected. Also it is higher to an extent for Manipur when compared to the All-India level in rural and urban areas in both the years. The differences in spending on education between the state and All-India may be due to the following few factors. In Manipur a large section of student enrolment in private educational institution, many go for further higher education, financing for higher education outside the state, high aspiration for education, increasing expenditure on private home tuition as a result of steep competition (and often more of a fashion), inadequate availability of government or subsidies educational infrastructure, etc.  On other hand, the lower level of expenditure at All-India level probably be due to lower literacy rates or for that matter lower proportion of educated people compared to Manipur. Moreover, it is due to the generalization for all the states and union territories (UTs) of India where some states or UTs have lower spending on education.

The increasing spending on education is also a concern for the planners and policy makers because each additional increment on educational expenditure is an outcome of factors like unemployment and the demand for higher educational qualification for particular job. Furthering higher education is, often argues, a mechanism to curb an unemployment in short-run by accommodating in higher education through subsidy on education. Instituting various new educational institutions particularly “distance education or correspondence courses” is a vivid example. In an existing trend of spiraling consumption expenditure on education a proper direction or guidance or course content that are in demand at present and in near future and applicable and adaptable in the local economy and environment are seemingly lacking. In short, expenditure on education should be made for employability in order to get a salaried job or established an establishment within the state’s economy. This will definitely lead to a reduction in unemployment level as well as save a wasteful money resources and time and use in other productive or developmental work.

It might be provocative to comment but in reality many employees who are less productive continue to hold the prestigious post enjoying the leisure in the classy office without paying much attention to those unemployed who may possess higher productivity if employed as their substitutes. The employers contend that the fresher are less competent and inexperienced to execute the task. A platform should be created in order to substantiate the argument. Further, existing employees should efficiently be trained in order to make more productive and consequently generate more jobs in the system.

Moreover, present job seekers are quite informative about the scarcity of vacant organized jobs in which extra qualification becomes necessary condition in search for job. On the other side, the employers are highly aware of the situation of the excess supply of the overqualified job seekers, which enhances employers bargaining power of wage particularly in the private sector. In the process job seekers’ bargaining power is dwindling due to the increasing number of qualified applicants. Even though higher qualification is not a necessary condition where minimum qualification is prescribe; people possessing higher educational qualification seems to have advantages in getting a job. For instance, many recently recruited Manipur Civil or Police Services or the like by the Manipur Public Service Commission possessed higher qualification including Masters of Philosophy and above. It is also a prevailing fact that many unemployed are seeking jobs where prescribe educational qualification is much lower than their possessed qualification. It is due to a higher competition across the type of available job and also due to a high prevalence of unemployed people. Person with an extra qualification are demanded or preferred so that same person can execute several type of job and also spend less resource in training. Technically, minimum prescribe qualification has seeming raised. In the past when number of educated people were few an expected earnings increases as the level of education increases. However, at present situation in many cases higher qualification is by and large a contributing factor for getting employment particularly in private sector. This induces to the growth of demand for higher education; thereby resulting to an increase in consumption expenditure on education.

In exploring the possible means for all the educated unemployed to be employed the commonly called self-employment is the only way. Various schemes for educated unemployed are available; however, in reality the amount is meager and less viable for execution. Further, it has lots of limitations like the knowledge of schemes, its amount, the terms and delivery norms of the scheme of finance to mention some examples. It can be argued that employment with a lower educational qualification could have benefited more than acquiring higher education and then experiencing a long period on waiting for the aspired job; had the present high unemployment level been foreseen. In a sense the opportunity cost of education is very high. It would not be incorrect that many are voluntarily unemployed due to their qualifications and job aspirations. Moreover, voluntary unemployment must have increased significantly in recent years. However, one should keep in mind that education is not only for entering in the salaried job market. Because the little education which the earlier generation has acquired propels the present generation to acquire higher than them so as to develop and realize the rich heritage, culture, values, etc. The decline of job vacancies in the labour market and the increase of demand for higher education tend to stagnate the growth of employment. Meanwhile in Manipur educated people are plenty which will face a serious repercussion in the long-run. Many remain voluntarily unemployed due to their aspiration of job which commensurate with their acquired educational qualification is yet to be found. It is also threatening that the pace of job creation particularly in government sector is sluggish and its rate is insignificant. Generation of job at this rate will take innumerable years to accommodate all the existing educated unemployed, even if those new entrants are not added. This implies that in near future large army of educated unemployed would revolt and transmit against governmental policies and programmes which is undesirable. The government is unable to generate adequate jobs; hence, games with policies of incentives and schemes which last only for short-run are unveiled. Instead government should create amicable socio-economic environment and encourage and invite private market players so as to generate adequate employment which can act as a substitute in providing a decent job.

In summary, consumption expenditure on education has increased significantly in recent years due to higher demand for education as a result of growing literacy level, increasing cost of education, and also cause by unemployment to cite few reasons. Many are voluntarily unemployed as a consequence of slow job generation by the state and high job aspirations among the unemployed which commensurate with their acquired educational qualification. Higher education seeming become a necessary condition although a prescribe qualification may be lower in getting a job. Perhaps, education should be restructured, delivered and acquired on the basis of quality and quantity of job available or likely to be available and for employability. Adequate job generation is required to reduce unemployment for every stage of educational level so that people will not go for further education and make unnecessary expenditure. Otherwise, people will go for higher education which will spill the problem of educated unemployment over the government in long-run. 
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For citation: Marchang Reimeingam, Spiraling Consumption Expenditure on Education: An Employment Perspective in Manipur, Imphal Free Press, Imphal, 22^nd Jan. 2009.

Population Growth and its By-Product

By Marchang Reimeingam, Khanrin, Sep-Nov 2004

Population, a means of any activity, is increasingly showing concern by both demographers and economists in the context of development. Its growth, as we all know, is affected by the vital events – birth, death and marriages – including migration. A factor such as religion, culture, social norms, etc. also influences the growth. For instance, practice of contraceptive is a taboo for some section of society, which induces in the growth. The level of development, for instance education or income particularly of females plays an important role in deciding a number of children. Therein parents would prefer quality than quantity as the rearing cost rises. In a sense reproduction would be of choice rather than of chance. However the number of children is also determined by the accessibility of medical and health care facilities, and mortality rates.

Illiterate and/or poor families have larger number of children due to their ignorance regarding contraceptive use as well as their affordability. They considered sex, available for free of cost, as one of the most luxury items. It resulted to the breeding of more children contributing in the population growth. More importantly, the growth of population is due to the decline in the death rate, which does not compensate by the fall in the birth rate. This growth may contribute as a supply of manpower but hazardous in the economy where many forms of unemployment is existed.

Education, one of the development indicators, is growing rapidly as human foresee its importance for the enhancement of production. In course of time education has developed in the envisaged direction. In comparison to the past experiences the growth of educational attainment is tremendous. Though there is a wide gap of educational attainments between the regional distributions, however the gap is significantly narrowing down between the genders. The narrowing down of the gap is mainly due to the increasing necessity, which is a contributing factor for the income generation, as the catering of future generation requires female’s contribution similar of male. But the system of education imparting in the society is far behind the practical consideration coupled with a little basis of training for work due to the lack of avenues for practices.

While the female’s contribution of work, when converted in terms of money, seemingly be significantly higher than males for their time devotion on work, provided knowledge and skill acquired and disposal are same to the male counterparts. Sectoral distribution of income would show that at present the earnings are significantly less of secondary and of tertiary sectors with comparison to the educational level. Females’ participation in secondary and tertiary sectors is significantly higher in urban area than in rural area as these sectors are mostly concentrated in urban area. Whereby the exodus of educated females of rural to urban is not uncommon. Further, many females after the accumulation of knowledge and skill lend up as a household workers. Thereby, there exist an inconsistency of females in the educational attainment and the level of skill workers. The bridging of the inconsistency gap requires the development as well as the inclination of economic responsibility by females. Economic responsibility, here I mean, is the income earning for the disposal for daily expenses, upbringing children, etc., which is presently catered largely by males. Female argues that the chances are not available, however opportunity is to be grasp by oneself, though they are willing to take up the job. This partially tells the domination by males in the society where one cannot out-rightly rejected with the prevailing evidences. However there was an anxiousness or discrimination of female employees in the male dominated work places.

The existence and survival depends solely on work irrespective of gender. Within the fast growing labour market due to the rapidly growing population, which exert imbalances between the supply of and demand for labour. Thereby produces unemployment as a by-product. However the type of unemployment prevailing in the economy depends upon the economic developmental and educational levels. The non-generation and non-availability of employment avenues rendered unemployment. The substitution of machinery to manual labour particularly unskilled raises it. In case of agricultural economy the increase in agricultural density raises disguised employment, underemployment, and unemployment.  Further the inability to compromise the time and expenditure incurred in acquiring certain educational level with the low paid available jobs rendered an educated voluntarily unemployed. Moreover the persistence of traditional and conventional motives for educated to fetch a salaried job leaves/remains in the nut-shelled of unemployed class. But at present with the ever-increasing excess supply of labour including the unskilled the type of labour demands are more skilful with wide knowledge capable of handling various job by a single employee. It is also coupled with a low pay package because of the excess applicants for educated in particular. Whereby rendered unemployment at considerably high level. The existence of high level of educated unemployed is due to the inconsistency in the labour supply and the salary offer (or money supply). For instance an excess or short of labour supply results to a low or high salary offer. No doubt of high and attractive salary package offerings, although for handful compared to the prevalence of mass eligible. This exists in the situation of economic liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation which induces to a generations of contractualisation, casualisation and informalisation of labour.

The present employment scenario indicates that most of the private sector employers preferred female than male employees particularly in the retail shops, hotels, restaurants, etc. However the system is being disturb by the fact of employability duration (period/years). For instance most of the above mentioned employment areas absorbs young age groups. Moreover the salary package has dwindled due to the excess supply of labour. This is because of the employer’s awareness regarding the inability to afford the expensive leisure of being unemployed and the unlimited involuntarily unemployed which strengthen his bargaining power. Hence this unemployed chose to be unwanted disgrace prey.

Moreover the downsizing of employment in public sector dwindles employment in it. With an ever increasing competition amongst the producers the private sector is outsourcing the employment absorption. Which incites the organized job aspirants’ willingness to compromise certain aspects like competition in particular with the increasing qualified competitors. Within the organized sectors, particularly private, the contract system of employment is becoming too common. In this situation a stable job is likely rare. Therefore preparedness of any time unemployment seemingly becomes a criterion in entering job market.

At present in reality very insignificant ratio of job aspirants, especially the educated, are being appointed. Which incites the substitution of the concept of traditional salaried employment of the educated by entrepreneurship mode of earning with full utilization of acquired knowledge and skills. This would be in accordance with the existing socio-economic environment, preferably with sustainability. Otherwise very large section of the educated will enter into the unemployed world, particularly the youths, because of the too low or disproportionate ratio of job creation and the new labour market entrants.

And most importantly motives of job provider, by entrepreneurship with creativity, rather than job seeker must be enlarged. There is undoubtedly exists the barrier to initiate entrepreneurship because of the inadequacy if not lack of source(s). This barrier should not be a limiting factor for it because presently there are innumerable schemes or funds for credit in terms of loans, which can be easily repayable on instalment basis.

Therefore with the dwindling salaried job avenues and increasing contractual job in the situation of flooded by highly educated and qualified job seekers, the paradigm of job aspirants shifting towards self-employment is very much inevitable rather than voluntarily being unemployed. Also reduction of unemployment requires control of population growth; modify educational system; broadening of training for work; boost economic development, etc. 

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For citation: Marchang Reimeingam, Population Growth and Its By-product, Khanrin, Delhi, Sep-Nov 2004.